This study documents China’s efforts to build its formal environmental education system and explores university students’ environmental knowledge and awareness using a survey carried out at Xiamen University, which is located on the southeastern coast of China. We find that the Chinese state made rapid progress in setting up environmental studies programs in its institutions of higher education, but it took the state over two decades to build a nationwide curriculum integrated with environmental studies for primary and secondary schools. The survey data revealed that these efforts have borne fruit. Students have improved in their environmental knowledge over time. Nevertheless, students remain disconnected from most environmental organizations. This may hinder China’s efforts to harness their environmental knowledge for the sake of effective action toward safeguarding the environment. The state should help encourage further cooperation among different social groups so China has a chance to fulfill its potential to become a global leader on environmental issues.
The United States was perceived in the 1970s as a global leader in domestic and foreign environmental policy-making, but it occupied that position for a very short time before it came to be widely considered a “laggard” in environmental policy by the early 2000s (
These measures taken by the Chinese state were all laudable. Yet China will not be able to fulfill its potential as a green leader if the drive for innovation in environmentally sustainable development remains nothing more than a government-led initiative. The general public must also learn to adjust their behavior to follow a more environmentally friendly lifestyle. The younger generation’s perception of the environmental problems facing China is especially important. Their engagement in the process of making China a truly “green” civilization is certainly one of the key factors needed to achieve a lasting harmony between humanity and nature in China in the coming decades. As Chinese philosopher Guan Zi argues, “If you are thinking one year ahead, then nothing is better than growing grain; if you are thinking ten years ahead, then nothing is better than planting trees; if you are thinking one hundred years ahead, then nothing is better than educating the people.” This study therefore explores the efforts China has made in formal environmental education
China’s efforts in building its environmental education system can be traced back to the 1970s when many institutions of higher education began setting up majors in Environmental Science/Engineering. In the 1980s these institutions also started offering courses in environmental protection for non-majors. Some secondary and primary schools incorporated environmental education into different subjects gradually over the 1980s and 1990s. Eventually, in 2003,
What is the level of knowledge and awareness in university students after a decade of systematic environmental educational effort? Based on a survey of 150 students at Xiamen University in 2015, we found that, overall, China’s environmental education programs have led to some positive outcomes. Environmental education reached most of the students (89 percent) while they were growing up. Nearly 99 percent of students had heard about global warming issues when they were in high school. Students’ general knowledge of environmental problems had substantially improved in comparison with previous studies (
The following pages will present a concise history of China’s formal environmental education initiative, and then will situate the current survey in the existing literature to highlight the contribution of this study. Next the article will discuss our major findings based on survey data. Finally, we will conclude by exploring the implications of our findings for China’s future environmental efforts.
China strove to build up its environmental education system over the years in response to two factors. One was connected to China’s domestic environmental crises. The other was linked to its exposure to revelations about the environment from the international community. In 1972, two environmental disasters seized the attention of Chinese leaders and made them realize the severe consequences of neglecting the environment (
These two environmental events were followed by the beginning of the People’s Republic of China (PRC’s) efforts to protect the environment from the mounting threats posed by China’s massive and rapid industrialization. On the international front, for the very first time Chinese delegates attended the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden in June 1972. On the domestic front, China hosted its own First National Conference on Environmental Protection in August 1973, organized by the State Planning Committee with a mandate from the State Council. This conference led to the promulgation of
Chinese institutions of higher learning responded immediately to these demands from the state. For instance, Peking University, Beijing Engineering University, Zhongshan University, and Tongji University began to offer courses in environmental studies between 1973 and 1978 (
Unlike the early and rapid development of environmental education in institutions of higher learning, the pace at which environmental education was established in primary and secondary schools was much slower. The call to action for primary- and secondary-level institutions (K-12) came five years later than for institutions of higher learning. In 1978, the Leader Group on Environmental Protection of the State Council pointed out in
The policy was partially implemented in the 1980s. In 1981, three-year pilot environmental education programs started at selected primary and secondary schools following the recommendation made by the Working Committee on Education of the Chinese Association of Environmental Science (
The development of environmental education in primary and secondary schools entered a critical period following 1992. In June 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Its outcome document,
In 1993, Beijing Normal University recruited its first class of master students in Environmental Education. In 1994, China released its own Agenda 21, the
In July 1997, the State Education Committee, World Wildlife Fund (WWF)-China, and BP began promoting an “Environmental Education Initiative in Primary and Secondary Schools of China.” This initiative was executed in three phases. The first phase between 1997 and 2000 focused mainly on training teachers and developing curricula and teaching resources—in addition to experiments with pilot school programs. The second phase (2001–2004) coincided with a new round of the State Basic Education Curricula Reform launched by the Ministry of Education to integrate the concept, content, and methods of education for sustainable development into new curricula. The important achievement of the second phase was the publication of
Therefore, in 2003, with the promulgation of the guidelines, the Ministry of Education formally adopted environmental education as a required element in the curricula of the primary and secondary schools. By then, China had established its formal environmental education system that encompassed higher educational institutions as well as primary and secondary schools. After the CCP’s 17th Party Congress in October 2007 made ecological civilization a national goal, China’s environmental education was reoriented for a second time. It was no longer called Education for Sustainable Development, but was instead Education for Ecological Civilization.
The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg, South Africa, recognized that the goal set out in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro for all states to develop a sustainable development education strategy had not been achieved. The members of the summit then determined that the ten years following 2005 should be a decade dedicated to a wider and more effective dissemination of sustainable development education (
What level of environmental awareness was achieved by university students in China after a decade of systematic environmental educational efforts? In the summer of 2015, with support from the Luce Initiative on Asian Studies and Environment Grant (LIASE), I had the opportunity to work with six undergraduate students at Eckerd College to design and carry out a survey on environmental knowledge and awareness for students at Xiamen University as a case of studying Chinese university students. We selected Xiamen University as the survey site because past collaborations provided ready connections for further cooperation.
Our survey built upon existing literature that dealt with similar topics. Only three studies during our research period proved to be relevant. For instance, Wong surveyed the environmental awareness of 350 students from ten universities in Beijing during the fall semester of the 1998–1999 academic year (
Given that the survey sites in the previous studies concentrated on Beijing, Shanghai, and Gansu and the latest survey was carried out in 2012, our study represents a new survey site (i.e. Xiamen) and an updated dataset (i.e. 2015). Moreover, Xiamen University is similar to universities in Beijing and Shanghai, recruiting students from all over China. Therefore, the results can be comparable. In particular, to facilitate the comparison, we drew survey questions from existing studies. For example, we borrowed 11 statements from He et al.’s 19 statements used to assess students’ environmental knowledge. As a result, we can compare students’ environmental knowledge over time.
The survey questionnaire was written in English and then translated into Chinese for respondents to answer. Students were randomly selected from the library and cafeteria during final exam week of the spring semester of 2015. The total sample size was 150 students. In total, 76 male students (50.7 percent) and 74 female students (49.3 percent) were selected. Since Xiamen University is a comprehensive research university, we had eight students (5.3 percent) pursuing a doctoral degree, 26 students (17.3 percent) pursuing a master’s degree, and 112 students (74.7 percent) pursuing a bachelor’s degree. The four remaining students (2.7 percent) did not provide information about the degree they were pursuing.
To measure if environmental education had reached all students, we asked if they had learned about the environment while growing up. In 2003, China had established an environmental education program that exposed students to these issues during primary school, secondary school, and in institutions of higher education. Given that, we expected a “yes” to this question. However, we also expected there might be an implementation gap between policy and reality. We found that 89 percent of the students answered yes to this question. This shows that China’s environmental education reached most of the students, but there still were some implementation gaps.
We cross-examined students about the reach of their environmental education by asking when they had first heard about global warming issues. About thirty-seven percent of students (36.7) indicated that they had learned about it in primary school, whereas 55.3 percent indicated that they had learned about it in middle school. By the time they reached high school, 98.7 percent in total had heard about global warming issues. This finding further supports the wide reach of environmental education in China. Table
Percentage of students who first heard about global warming issues, per level of schooling, as of 2015.
When did you first hear about global warming? | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | Percent | Valid Percent | Cumulative Percent | ||
Valid | Elementary | 55 | 36.7 | 36.7 | 36.7 |
Middle | 83 | 55.3 | 55.3 | 92.0 | |
High | 10 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 98.7 | |
College | 2 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 100.0 | |
Total | 150 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
To assess students’ environmental knowledge, we ask students to answer thirteen true-or-false questions. Eleven of these questions were drawn from a comparative study of university students’ environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behavior based on a survey conducted in 2007 in Shanghai and Gansu (
Statements used to assess environmental knowledge by percentage of correct answers.
Statements | Xiamen (2015)% | Shanghai (2007)% | Gansu (2007)% |
---|---|---|---|
Sulfur hexafluoride is the main cause of ozone depletion. | 45.3 | 91 | 50 |
Coral reefs and rainforests are places with rich biodiversity. | 95.3 | 72 | 43 |
Burning plastic waste is the most effective way to control white pollution. | 93.3 | 89 | 92 |
Most ozone in the atmosphere is found in the troposphere. | 72.7 | 47 | 66 |
Soil degradation only happens in the northwest of China. | 96.7 | 82 | 96 |
Sandstorms can cause air pollution and degrade the soil. | 95.3 | 86 | 41 |
Domestic discharge of waste-water is the main source of river pollution. | 4.7 | 61 | 75 |
Carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor are considered greenhouse gases. | 31.3 | 14 | 13 |
Oil is considered one of the major pollutants of the ocean. | 74 | 35 | 32 |
Acid rain only occurs in industrial areas. | 96.7 | 75 | 81 |
The major characteristic of white pollution is that it does not decompose. | 84 | 85 | 49 |
Coal is a nonrenewable resource. | 90 | ||
Red tide is increased due to runoff. | 17.3 |
Based on students’ responses to the thirteen true-or-false questions, an index was created to examine the overall distribution of students’ environmental knowledge scores. Table
Key statistics on environmental knowledge scores among students at Xiamen University, 2015.
Valid | 136 | |
Missing | 14 | |
Mean | 9.0147 | |
Median | 9.0000 | |
Mode | 9.00 | |
Std. deviation | 1.15461 | |
Variance | 1.333 | |
Skewness | –.439 | |
Std. Error of skewness | .208 | |
Range | 7.00 | |
Minimum | 5.00 | |
Maximum | 12.00 | |
Existing literature has found that female students are generally more concerned about environmental problems, and students from more developed areas are more willing to prioritize environmental protection (
To measure students’ environmental awareness, we asked them to agree or disagree with six statements on their environmental behaviors or their intentions to commit to these behaviors. The number 1 indicated they strongly disagreed, 2 indicated they disagreed, 3 indicated they remained neutral, 4 indicated they agreed, and 5 indicated they strongly agreed. Table
Items used to measure environmental awareness (with 1 as strongly disagree and 5 as strongly agree), 2015.
Items | Mean | Median | Mode |
---|---|---|---|
If you see trash on your way to school, you would pick it up and throw it in the proper place (such as a trash can). | 4.3 | 4 | 5 |
In your residence you have a recycling bin that you use frequently. | 3.85 | 4 | 4 |
You would sign a petition to increase protection of an endangered species. | 4.46 | 5 | 5 |
You strictly adhere to environmental protection laws. | 4.31 | 4 | 4 |
If you had the opportunity to take part in a local environmental clean-up activity, you would participate. | 4.07 | 4 | 4 |
You prefer to use a personal car over public transportation. | 3.18 | 3 | 3 |
Existing literature has found that less than six percent of university students had joined environmental protection associations or organizations, and only 1.7 percent indicated that they were active members (
Percentage of Active Memberships in Environmental Organizations.
Source: World Values Survey Wave 6: 2010–2014, China.
1 = no formal education; 2 = complete primary school; 3 = complete secondary school: technical/vocational type; 4 = complete secondary school: university-preparatory type; 5 = university-level education with degree.
We chose Xiamen Green Cross Association to test our hypothesis due to its unique significance for the City of Xiamen. It claims to be the first grassroots environmental NGO in Fujian Province. It was founded in 1999 and registered with Xiamen Civil Affairs Bureau in 2007 (
Given that our whole survey focused on environmental issues, we assumed initially that this test might work against our hypothesis, since students could expect Xiamen Green Cross was an environmental organization due to the context of the survey questionnaire. The data surprised us by showing that only about 10 percent of students (15 total) had heard about it and about 10.6 percent (16 total) knew it was an environmental NGO. The data showed that one of the 15 students who had heard about Xiamen Green Cross did not know what its work was; two students who had not heard about it nevertheless answered the question, saying it should be an environmental NGO. This seems to be speculation based on the context of the survey questionnaire. The data supports our hypothesis that there is a lack of connection between environmental NGOs and university students. If university students have never even heard about the environmental NGOs active in their area, it is certainly not very likely that they would ever get involved or become members. If these environmental NGOs cannot draw participants from the most highly educated segments of society, how can they expect to succeed in their mission to effectively safeguard the natural environment through civic engagement?
This study documents China’s efforts to build its formal environmental education system and also explores university students’ environmental knowledge and awareness using a survey carried out at Xiamen University in 2015—about a decade after China’s formal environmental education system was established in 2003. History shows that China made rapid progress in setting up environmental studies in its higher educational institutions, but it took China over two decades to build a nationwide curriculum for primary and secondary schools that included environmental studies. Our survey data revealed that these efforts bore fruit, as indicated by the statistics. For instance, 89 percent of college students learned about environmental issues during their formative years. When they were in high school, 98.7 percent of students in total had heard about global warming issues. University students’ overall environmental knowledge improved when compared with the results from a survey carried out in 2007. Gender and the level of development in students’ home provinces showed no effect on their environmental knowledge. Students showed positive environmental awareness in five out of six occasions—except for their slight preference for using private cars over public transportation. Students lacked awareness of environmental NGOs, which may help explain why the membership of environmental organizations in China is low even among the most highly educated groups in the country.
This data is generally promising for China’s environmental future, given the trend of improvement in environmental knowledge and positive environmental awareness among university students. Yet knowledge and awareness do not automatically translate into behavior. To summarize this critical issue, there is a low percentage of membership in environmental NGOs among highly educated groups —herein lies the gap between knowledge and action. Environmental protection is still a very fragmented effort in Chinese society. Coordination between NGOs and students is much needed. The Chinese state should expand its efforts beyond formal environmental education to further cooperation between different groups and thus move closer toward achieving its goal of an “ecological civilization.” This kind of shift in state policy might help strengthen China’s chances to eventually fulfill its potential to become a global leader on environmental issues.
This study limited its research scope to formal environmental education through the school systems while acknowledging that environmental education can be done through venues outside the school systems, such as family and the media.
The author has no competing interests to declare.